Motivation theory and Upanishads

Motivation

Why someone works? It starts from a desire, and a decision to fulfil that desire. Accordingly, one sets a goal. Motivation is the reason that helps a person to achieve their set goals and it is the key reason which helps a person to be a better person.

Important debates in the academic literature concern to what extent motivation is innate or based on genetically determined instincts rather than learned through previous experience. A closely related issue is whether motivational processes are mechanistic and run automatically or have a more complex nature involving cognitive processes and active decision-making.

Another discussion revolves around the topic of whether the primary sources of motivation are internal needs rather than external goals. ^[M]

Motivation Theory

Motivation theory is the study of understanding what drives a person to work for achieving a particular goal or outcome. Theories of motivation are frameworks or sets of principles that aim to explain motivational phenomena. They seek to understand how motivation arises and what causes and effects it has as well as the goals that commonly motivate people. 

This way, they provide explanations of why an individual engages in one behaviour rather than another, how much effort they invest, and how long they continue to strive toward a given goal.^[M]

Modern Motivation Theories

There are two types of motivation theories: Content motivation theories which focus on WHAT while Process motivation theories focus on HOW.

Process Motivation Theories

The process motivation theories are the motivational theories that concentrate on HOW to motivate people for a particular job or process or result. Process theories discuss the cognitive, emotional, and decision-making processes A few main process motivation theories are:

• Skinner’s reinforcement theory, 
• Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory, 
• Adam’s equity theory and 
• Locke’s goal-setting theory

Skinner’s reinforcement theory

Skinner’s reinforcement theory or the reinforcement theory is based on Skinner’s operant conditioning theory, which states that behavior can be formed by its anticipated consequences (Gordon, 1987).

Positive reinforcement motivates a person to get anticipated reinforcement of required behaviour. A few of the examples of Positive reinforcement are appreciation, certification, money, trophy, etc. Negative reinforcement causes the elimination of the unpleasant state.

Punishment can be the undesired reinforcement or reinforce undesired behavior.

Positive reinforcement is a better and improved motivational technique than punishment because:

1. Punishment does not give an alternative to undesirable motivation; it just tries to stop the undesirable motivation.
2. Punishment creates negative attitudes and bad feelings towards the person and work.
3. Also, punishment just tries to avoid the bad behavior but does not give a permanent solution to the problem.

Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

According to the theory, motivation is defined as the process that controls our choices among the other available forms of voluntary behavior. It aims to explain how people choose from the actions that are available to them.

The motivation to be involved in an activity is found by appraising three factors, that are:

• Expectancy: It is a common belief that more effort results in success, therefore, a person expects that if he is working hard then he/she expects to be appreciated or appraised.
• Instrumentality: The belief within the person that there is a connection between activity and goal, therefore, if you perform well, you will get the reward.
• Valence: The value of a reward for a person as a result of his success.

Adam’s Equity Theory

The equity theory states that a person is motivated, if he feels himself treated equitably, and receive what they consider fair for their effort and cost. It is based on the social exchange theory

Locke’s Goal-setting Theory

It is an integrative model of motivation like the expectancy theory. It focuses on setting specific goals and then commitment to these goals. These are key determinants of motivation. Goals described the desired future and established goals that can drive the behaviour of the person.

Content Motivation Theories

Content theories are based on identification of the internal human factors that motivate people, such as different types of needs, drives, and desires. They examine which are the desires and goals that motivate people. The basic and primary content theory is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. However, it was revised to provide an improved theory for a job or work condition by Frederick Herzberg with his two-factor theory, and David McClelland by his learned needs theory.

Learned Need Theory

McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s , as its focuses on satisfying the existing needs of a person, rather than focusing on the identification and understanding , say development of new needs. These dominant motivators depend on our culture and life experiences, and are permanent. These motivators are:

• Affiliation
• Achievement
• Power

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory is also known as motivation-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg’s Theory, there are five factors known as the motivating factors that cause job motivation, while five other factors known as the hygiene factors, deficiency of which cause dissatisfaction.

These are the five factors that motivate a person and make him satisfied with his job:

• Achievement
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement

At the same time we need the lack of dissatisfaction to achieve more productive work. These are listed as five Hygeine factors:

• Company policy and administration
• Supervision
• Salary
• Interpersonal relationships
• Working conditions

Maslow – hierarchy of needs theory

One of the earliest or most widely known theories of motivation is Maslow – hierarchy of needs, which was developed in the 1940s and 1950s by Abraham Maslow. Unlike other theories focussing on a work-space, this theory is applicable to humanity for everything he does.

The theory consists of five basic hierarchies. The arrangement of this hierarchy, from top to bottom, is in the following manner:

• Self-Actualization
• Esteem Needs
• Belongingness and love need
• Safety Needs
• Physiological Needs

Maslow holds that humans have different kinds of needs and that those needs are responsible for motivation. According to him, they form a hierarchy of needs that is composed of lower and higher needs.

Lower needs belong to the physiological level and are characterized as deficiency needs since they indicate some form of lack. Examples are the desire for food, water, and shelter.

Higher needs belong to the psychological level and are associated with the potential to grow as a person. Examples are self-esteem in the form of a positive self-image and personal development by actualizing one’s unique talents and abilities.^[M] 

Let us, therefore, explain the needs from lower to higher needs.

Physiological Needs

This hierarchy level of physiological needs is the most basic needs for humans to survive, such as air, water, and food. Without all of the three basic physiological needs, our body and mind cannot function well, therefore, this level of hierarchy also falls in the category of basic needs.

Safety and Security

This hierarchy of safety and security tells us about the basic needs of a human which are a secure source of income, a place to live, health, and well-being. There is the most basic motivation for a human to be motivated therefore, falls in the category of basic needs. And once these basic needs of a human being are fulfilled then only a person can think about the other two needs: Self-fulfilment and Psychological Needs.

Belongingness and love need

Belongingness and love is the third level of hierarchy which tells us about the need of a person to integrate into social groups, feel part of a community, and be loved. It is believed that people need to belong and be accepted among their social groups. This hierarchy falls in the category of psychological needs.

Esteem Needs

Esteem is the second level hierarchy from top, which tells us about the desire of a person for the need of respect. The meaning of Esteem is to be valued, respected, and appreciated by others. This hierarchy falls in the category of psychological needs.

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is the hierarchy that tells us about the desire of an individual to grow and develop to his/her full potential. This hierarchy falls in the category of self-fulfilment needs.

Two key principles of Maslow’s theory are the progression principle and the deficit principle. They state that lower needs have to be fulfilled before higher needs become activated. This means that higher needs, like esteem and self-actualization, are unable to provide full motivation while lower needs, like food and shelter, remain unfulfilled.

ERG Theory

An influential extension of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was proposed by Clayton Alderfer in the form of his ERG theory.

Alderfer categorized Maslow’s physiological needs and Maslow’s safety needs (Basic needs) into the existence category, Maslow’s social needs and Maslow’s extrinsic component of self-esteem needs (Psychologial needs) into the relatedness category, and Maslow’s intrinsic component of self-esteem needs and Maslow’s self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment needs) into the growth category.

Alderfer also proposed a progression and regression theory to go along with the ERG theory: he said that when needs in a lower category are satisfied, an individual will invest more efforts in the higher category, and when needs in a higher category are frustrated, an individual will invest more efforts in the lower category. 

Motivation as per Upanishads

Four Purusharths as per Upanishad

As per Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavat Gita, we know that the human objectives are categorized into four Purusharths. As such, everyone is motivated to work for fulfilment of these objectives. But, there is no specific hierarchy for fulfilling these objectives of Artha (Wealth), Dharma (Social and religious duties), Kama (Fulfilling of desires), and Moksha (Renunciation). This hierarchy of these motivation may be fixed with the help of further study of Upanishads.

Brahm

The word ‘Brahm’ is derived from the root “brih”, which means to grow, denotes ‘growing’ and ‘unimaginable great thing’. And unsurpassed or absolute greatness must be here intended through the term, inasmuch as there is nothing pointing to a limitation. 

The ultimate objective of life as per life is to attain unity with the Brahm, which is known as Moksha.

Brahm Vidya

Brahmvidya provides knowledge of Brahm. These are pearls of wisdom identified from major Upanishads which state one or more attributes of Brahm. As per Brahm Sutra, or Uttar Mimansa book, there are thirty two such Brahm Vidyas. Further, mere reading or knowing these Brahm Vidyas will not lead one to Brahm, but continued meditation on one or more attribute of the Brahm, as per the Brahm Vidya is required for realizing Brahm. These Vidyas are detailed in the book series “Eternal Meditation Principles: Brahm Vidya”

Bhrigu Varuni Vidya

This Brahma Vidya is explained in the third chapter Bhrigu Valli of Taittariya Upanishad.  The story narrates how Bhrigu – son of Varuna, the great law-enforcer, realized Brahm by his repeated penance and meditation under the guidance of his father.

Bhrigu approached his father Varuna and asked him the way to realise the Brahm. Varuna told that Brahm is the principle, or element, or thing, wherefrom all Beings are originated, all nourished or reside in, and to which every body ends his existence. He advised Bhrigu to do penance and meditate on these attributes, which will lead him to Brahm.

Bhrigu did penance and continuously meditated on this origin of beings and from this arrived at the conclusion that Annam (Food) is Brahm as all the Beings originate from Annam (Food), all survive on it, and finally end as Food. He, being not fully sure of his finding, again approached his father to confirm whether it is Brahm.

Varuna told him to know the Brahm by further penance and continuing meditation. As a result of further meditation, Bhrigu knew that Prana (Life) is Brahm. When he asked his father, he was again asked to know Brahm through further penance and meditation.

Varuna was a very good teacher. Perhaps he was the best teacher. It is no use simply superimposing some ideas on the mind of the disciple by saying something which his mind cannot grasp.

Bhrigu, after further penance and meditation, knew Manas (Mind) is Brahm. The cosmic mind, the consciousness in the cosmos, was realised by him in his direct experience. Again, he went to his father and said, “This is what I experienced; teach me further.” The father replied, “Continue your Meditation further and know for yourself.”

As advised by Varuna, continuing meditation, in the fourth instance, he came to know that Vigyana, the cosmic understanding, the intellect or intelligence, is Brahm. After the realisation of the cosmic understanding, intellect as Brahm, he went to the father and said, “I understand the Super intellect as the Brahm. Please teach me further.”

The father said, “Meditate further and realise for yourself.”

So, Bhrigu restrained his mind more and more and meditated more and more to find out the Brahm. At last, he knew by his penance and meditation that Ananda (Ultimate Bliss) is Brahm. So now we come to the essential point of the Vidya and the essential aim of life itself. We are in search of happiness, and not in search of objects.

Bliss is internal state. One is born with happiness, he lives in happiness, and ends in happiness. However, happiness is not to be searched outside of oneself. It cannot be found, because it is inside us. We cannot search for ourself outside in space and time.

Five Kosas or Sheaths

From the story, we understand that there  are  five  kosas  or  sheaths, or covering,  in  which  the  Self  manifests itself  as  the  Ego, — namely,  the  Annamaya  or  the  one composed  of  food,  the  Pranamaya  or  the  one  composed  of vitality, life force, the  Manomaya  or  the  one  composed  of  thought, emotions,etc.  the Vigyanamaya  or  the  one  composed  of  intelligence, knowledge, understanding, etc. and  the Anandamaya  or  the  one  composed  of  bliss.

The  five  sheaths  of  the  non-Ego  or  objective  group  constitute respectively  the  material  essences  of  which  the  five sheaths  of  the  Ego  or  subjective  group  are  built  up. So, the same objective groups such as Annamaya, Pranamaya, Manomaya, Vigyanmaya, and Ananadmaya constitute the principles of motivation for doing anything in the world.

Motivation Principles as per Upanishads

Now, we understand  that  the  Annamaya Kosa  is  made  up  of  the matter  on  the  plane  of  physical  matter. As  the effect  is  not  distinct  from  the  cause,  the  Annamaya  is  not distinct  from  Anna,  its  material  cause. So,  too,  with  regard to  the  other  Kosas.

Maslow might have meant the same through his basic level of Motivation, by the Physiological needs for motivation. When the individual imagination is limited to Annamaya Kosa, it considers the fulfillment of basic requirement of body as his priority. It is the basic level of motivation of Upanishads as well.

In proper meditation, we concentrate attention of our mind on any object exclusively, as if it is the total reality and nothing else exists outside it. This sort of intense fixing of the attention of the mind will lead us to realise some gross object first. Thus, it is normal to conclude that all matter, the physical universe, everybody is produced by food, each one depends on it for sustenance and growth and in the end, everything becomes food. So, Food itself is Brahm. Food covers everything for sustenance of life, all physiological needs.

The universal material is not the Ultimate Reality. This was what Bhrigu realised by deep meditation. He entered further inside into the substance behind the physical universe and came to experience that subtle vital energy, Prana permeating the whole cosmos as Reality. Thus, he sensed the Prana as Brahma required for sustaining life. So, we need to ensure this Prana. Is not it similar to the safety needs, the second lowest one in the pyramid of needs for motivation?

After further meditation, he realized that the cosmic mind is the Supreme Reality, which fulfils all the definitions of Brahm. This is still subtler. The mind is same as the feelings, emotion, and social life, the third level of Pyramid of Motivation. Thus, the need of emotion, feelings, senses, social life is still higher in hierarchy as per Upanishads. So, is the case with Maslow’s Motivation theory.

Further meditation led up to more subtle understanding of Brahma. He realised the cosmic understanding, the intellect or intelligence, as Brahm. Thus, the object fulfilling the condition of sustenance of life, Brahm becomes more and more subtle with continuous meditation. Thus, the need of knowledge, intellect, mind is still higher in hierarchy as per Upanishads. So, is the case with Maslow’s Motivation theory.

After his further meditation, he feels the most subtle level of Brahm is Bliss, the happiness. It is thus the most subtle aspect of motivation. The highest conceivable requirement for Motivation is the permanent happiness or bliss without any external dependence . The level of self-actualization of Maslow may be compared to this Anand Maya Kosa of Upanishads.

As per the Upanishads, the  Self  and  Brahm  are identical.  In  the  light  of  this  teaching,  we should not identify ourselves with  the  results of these material Causes, i.e., with the different Sheaths or Kosas. We are to understand these sheaths, and rise to  the  level  of  Brahm beyond  these.

To go beyond the Cause,  and  the results, in order to realise  the  unity  of  Brahm and  the  Self. It is the ultimate goal, or motivation for all our efforts. This motivation level is going beyond all Kosas, or sheaths of a person. This motivation level to reach the level beyond the Sheath of bliss, is the ultimate level of Motivation as per Upanishads.

Please check the picture above. To Each of the Sheaths, or Kosas of a person, we can mark one level of Maslow’s motivation pyramid. The ERG framework is also shown there.